Food Technology

I am a few months out from beginning my doctoral studies, but in an effort to keep the analytical brain juices flowing during this hiatus, I have some comments on an editorial I recently read in the NY Times by Michael Pollan. Pollan is the author of noteworthy works such as The Botany of Desire, Second Nature, and more recently, The Omnivore’s Dilemma – which I have not yet read but plan to – among others. With such writings to his credit, Pollan is, indeed, an intriguing author, especially among the horticulturally-inclined, like myself. Yet, Pollan readily admits to not being a horticulturist. He is a writer – a writer with a penchant for gardening, plants, and food culture – a writer with a gift for taking these seemingly mundane subjects and peeling away layers of provocative discussion like the leaves of an onion. How appropriate, then, that his editorial focused on another leafy vegetable.

In “The Vegetable-Industrial Complex” (October 15, 2006), Pollan examined the recent E. coli scare that swept the United States, which was linked to the consumption of bagged spinach processed in the Salinas Valley of California. The Salinas Valley is considered the “Salad Bowl of the United States,” and one drive through this terrain east of Monterey will lend no dispute. The valley is a sea of green and purple lettuce leaves, bushy broccoli and cabbage plants, almost any edible leafy or Brassica species found on supermarket shelves is grown there and shipped all over the country. Those tight rows of continuous production are beautiful in my mind, tucked between mountain ranges, nourished by fertile soils, and kept fresh with the morning breath of coastal fog. At harvest time, meticulous hands guard against blemish, and processors wash, bag, and ship the produce for consumer convenience. These cash commodities usually appear immaculate on supermarket shelves when perused by customers, but there are some things that the eye cannot see. We do not live in a utopia; sometimes things go wrong.

That is what happened in the fall of 2006 – something went wrong. Somehow E. coli infiltrated batches of one of our beloved leafy greens – spinach – this crop that we have come to know and love, cleaned of any trace of its field origin, tightly sealed for freshness in ‘controlled-atmosphere’ bags, and ready to serve. Speculation grew regarding the cause of this outbreak. Terrorists were ruled out, but so many variables lay unanswered for quite some time.

Rather than continue with the speculation, in “The Vegetable-Industrial Complex”, Pollan addressed other concerns perhaps more fundamental than the emanating but transient health scare. He addressed the source of our food, the technology we use to achieve its mass-production, and consumer choice. Pollan questioned whether we are getting ahead of ourselves with technological advances in our food systems – whether the technology which helps us grow it, preserve it, ship it, and even solve the problems surrounding it are really to our benefit. As a scientist – a horticultural scientist at that – I could not help but be intrigued by his proclamations.

To elucidate his claims, Pollan reflected on another E. coli incident in the not-too-distant past where U.S. beef was found with a deadly strain. Pollan noted that the strain of E. coli found was one only present in grain-fed beef. He went on to suggest that if we were less dependent on these feedlot cattle and instead consumed locally-raised, pasture-fed beef, the problem would never have arisen. Then, he relates this past incident to the recent spinach outbreak by suggesting that if more of us shopped locally for our produce, the E. coli outbreak originating from the Salinas Valley may not have been the grand issue that it was. We have become too dependent on technology to grow our food – the technology to grow masses of grains to feed our feedlot cattle, the technology to grow pristine vegetables which are shipped across the country, among all the other technologies of our agricultural industries. Instead, if we stepped back from technology and supported local agriculture, we might have a better understanding and appreciation for food and have stronger local economies.

These are some ideas that, in fact, I really like, being the utopian-hopeful that I am. Nevertheless, I am not insinuating that these are not complicated suggestions. For example, are people living in places where certain crops will not grow well supposed to live without this cherished produce? No, I am not suggesting that. After all, most Americans would not be eating bananas if that were the case. Second, mass-production and technology has made our food cheap and readily available. That is a convenience that, as a student, I can certainly appreciate.

But, I do agree that we should all make efforts to support locally-grown produce and perhaps make efforts to move away from technology to source the product and resolve the problem. From past experiences working with young students of urban settings, it was disheartening to hear them say that meat comes from Styrofoam and milk from a carton. Today, probably many of them think that spinach comes from a bag. Yes, I agree that technology – with all its benefits – also has its costs. It is important that future scientists of any field remember this. Utopia aside, our future health, security, and happiness depend on it.

Homeward Bound and Concluding Remarks

My final days in New Zealand I spent taking in sites I was determined to see before departure. On a rainy Saturday, I went up to the Coromandel Peninsula again to see the praised Cathedral Cove and experience the naturally warm waters of Hot Water Beach. Even in a misty rainy, Cathedral Cove was beautiful – carved by the strength of waves to mold an arch resembling a house of worship. Along the approaching trail, I witnessed a lime-green spiral – the shape of the New Zealand silver fern before it unravels its frown. At Hot Water Beach, kids dug holes in the sand until they hit water, water from a naturally warm stream beneath the sand. (It is not the ocean water from which this beach gets its name.) I also spied a beached, baby hammerhead shark on the sand. It was dead, but it must have been recently stranded, as it had not begun to deteriorate and was an interesting specimen. With this final trip, I didn’t see every possible wonder of New Zealand, but I came pretty close.

My final days in New Zealand I spent wrapping up loose ends. I sold my car to a couple of Chilean girls who didn’t realize I understood their Spanish conversations. I wrote an article for the Kiwifruit Journal on vine training the gold kiwifruit – the thesis of the project which occupied my time at HortResearch. I brought scones to work for morning tea on my final day – to everyone’s delight, but there was a bit of dismay when we wrapped up my final lunch time volleyball game. Even my sarcastic officemate/boss expressed a bit of disappointment at the end of the day, saying he would miss my “American accent.” It was definitely a bittersweet moment saying goodbye to these people who had not only become my colleagues but also my friends. I only hope I made half the impression on them as they made on me.

My final days in New Zealand I spent relaxing and enjoying the company of friends. The weather was perfect in my final week – warm and sunny with occasional puffy clouds. I enjoyed running a few more times around and up Mount Maunganui, meandering along the beach, relaxing outside sun-bathed café patios, and relishing in the onset of spring. (After all, it will be quite some time before I actually enjoy a full spring.) I had dinner with a few people from work and bid a sorrowful farewell to my good friend Marcela.

And then it was time to go home. I boarded the giant Boeing 777 at 7:30pm on Saturday. After a movie and a meal, I slept surprisingly well, despite the two crying babies. I awoke to bright sunshine reflecting off the Pacific, and shortly thereafter, I saw land. “California here I come. Right back where I started from.” It almost seemed surreal. Was I really approaching my continent, my country, my state? When I set foot in the San Francisco airport, it was 12:30pm on Saturday. By crossing the international dateline, I had gone backwards in time. My whole family, minus my older brother who was busy harvesting tomatoes, was there to greet me. Welcomed faces for my welcome home. It had been a long time…

California is quite dry, as to be expected, at this time of year. The golden grasses were the antithesis of the endless green of the island country. The juxtaposition of spring to autumn will take some time to grasp, and I am still getting my head around driving on the right-hand side of the road. Tomatoes are being harvested as usual; my room is the same as when I left it. My mom still cooks the food I like just the way I like it, and my dad and I share in jokes and insightful conversations just as before. Most everything seems the same, but I feel slightly changed. My family said my hair looks darker; my skin is pale. Sometimes I blurt out phrases in Spanish or silly Kiwi expressions, but these are only on the surface. For anyone who has done a bit of world travel, I don’t have to say twice that the United States is an interesting place to call home. I am a patriotic person, but I now also have an outsider’s perspective. We, as Americans, are respected, and we are despised. We are viewed as powerful; we are viewed as intrusive. Some have ambitions of visiting our vast lands, some wish to move here, some will never set foot. There are stereotypes – some are true and some couldn’t be farther from the truth. People will hear what they wish to hear and believe what they wish to believe. I accepted some of these perspectives; I refuted others, but I absorbed all of these things. My travels this year will remain in my heart and mind forever, and I will continue to learn from them day after day. But, no matter the differences I may have encountered, no matter the changes I might have undergone, despite the different languages that we speak, the different lands that we come from, and the different waters that divide us, we are all just one people, and we have so much to learn from each other. It is so nice to be home, but home means so much more now.

There are a few more pictures to view from my final days in New Zealand at my Shutterfly account. And as for 'what next for this blog?', well, stay tuned. You never know how it may transform. After all, I'm still wandering...

August/September Dreer Fellowship Report

Horticulture and Culture: The Human Element of Sustainability

Kiwifruit production in New Zealand proceeds under the standards of organic and conventional. Remembering that their term ‘conventional’ is synonymous with our ‘integrated’, this is the sector of the industry which produces the majority of the $720 million dollar annual crop. Organic production is only a fraction of that total. With three million trays of organic fruit exported in 2005, this only accounted for four percent of the crop and three percent of the market share in that year. Area planted has been decreasing in recent years, down eight percent in 2005. Such statistics may seem puzzling, since New Zealand’s reputation for sustainable agricultural practices are known the world over and because crops like apple and kiwifruit are regulated under mandatory integrated management as a minimum standard. But, perhaps it is for these reasons that organic production remains low. Because organic production requires further restrictions and farm modifications, particular attention must be paid to the bottom line. Kiwifruit exports are already extremely profitable in Asian markets – regardless of whether the crop is organic or integrated – thus, there is little room for boosting economic incentives for organic fruit. While integrated fruit has an average farm gate return of $37,600 per hectare, organic fruit only returns $37,000 per hectare. Thus, if the economic incentive is not there, organic production tends to be carried primarily by those who support its environmental implications, appreciate it for health and safety reasons, and believe in it as a system. It is an example of a culture within horticulture.

Organic Production

In my last month and a half in New Zealand, I attended a series of meetings hosted by growers of the Certified Organic Kiwifruit Association (COKA). From the discussions, I gained a better understanding of the issues related to organic kiwifruit production. Two of the major pest problems faced by all kiwifruit growers, but which are particularly difficult to manage in organic production, are the Armillaria fungus and scale insects. The initial symptoms of Armillaria infection are canopy wilting and yellowing, but because these symptoms are not specific to Armillaria per se, growers have become attentive to the signs. The true sign of Armillaria infection is the presence of the white fungus under the bark layer. This fungus often causes the bark to swell and crack – easing the investigation – and the fungus itself has a strong mushroom odor. Black rhizomorphs may also be seen branching from root hairs. The gravity of Armillaria occurs when the fungus girdles entire vines and when fruit is affected, causing softening and bruising. Because organic growers are restricted from pesticide use, they have been innovative in their management strategies. First, they have found that simply pruning to keep the canopy in balance with the roots helps mitigate the disease by keeping water and nutrients in balance. Another method of control employed by these growers is water ‘sluicing’ and root removal. Because Armillaria is spread by root-to-root contact, growers have found that by examining roots and severing them from the plant, spread of the disease can be drastically reduced. To accomplish this, growers will wash away soil around the base of the trunk, exposing the roots. If the roots appear infected, then they are cut from the base. This prevents the fungus from moving up the trunk and also prevents it from moving to other roots, which may be in contact with roots from other vines.

Scale insects are the major insect pests infecting both integrated and organic kiwifruit. Both integrated and organic growers generally use pre and post-flower sprays to control scale, but organic sprays tend to come in the form of mineral or fish oils. Fish oil is a relatively new oil when used for this purpose, and whereas mineral oils may be more effective, they have been shown to cause phytotoxicity in some cases. Fish oil also has the benefit of acting as a fertilizer, but more research is needed to know whether it has any tangential effects. Nonetheless, which ever oil is being employed, it is generally believed that oils perform better than insecticides against scale because they act as repellants so that the eggs cannot stick to the canes. Thus, the life cycle is broken. Oils also do not tend to kill beneficial insects like broad-spectrum insecticides. Incarsia wasp species are known to parasitize sedentary scales, and earwigs predate them.

Also discussed at the COKA meetings were various cultural practices. Soil management is always an important topic among organic growers. Most growers in the Bay of Plenty are applying compost annually to improve the percent organic matter and macronutrients in the soil and increase worm and other beneficial microbial populations. Some growers have come to rely completely on vermicompost for that reason. Others are applying fish meal, fish water, and other organically-certified fertilizers to improve their chemical, physical, and biological soil components. Growers in the Waikato region reported not to apply compost, however, because nutrient levels in that region are sufficient.

Other cultural practices which were discussed included managing shettlerbelts to prevent them as acting alternate hosts of pests and diseases, trunk girdling and how it could lead to poorer root health if employed year after year, and how proper pollination could improve fruit quality and size.

Organic Research

The Agriculture Research Group on Sustainability (ARGOS) began in October 2003 as an unincorporated joint venture project among Lincoln University, the University of Otago, and the Agribusiness Group Ltd. The purpose of ARGOS is to ‘examine the environmental, social and economic sustainability of New Zealand farming systems.’ What started off focusing on sheep and beef pasture land management, ARGOS has embarked on a ‘Pathways to Sustainability’ study which also includes investigations of kiwifruit, high country, dairy, and Maori land holdings management. The primary goal of the projects combined is to discover determinants of sustainability, regardless of the agriculture sector.

Before leaving New Zealand, I met with the program director of the ARGOS kiwifruit project, Jayson Benge. The kiwifruit study involves 36 privately-managed orchards, equally divided among Hayward orchards under integrated management, Hort16A under integrated management, and Hayward under organic management. The majority of these orchards are in the Bay of Plenty region, but a few reside near Kerikeri in the north and Moteuka on the South Island. Currently in its fourth year of study, the years prior have focused on collecting farm data past and present, with the goal of the next three years being to improve sustainability. Because the key difference between organic and integrated production is inputs, the project will investigate whether differences in soil and vine health occur and how yield and finances vary between the two. At the conclusion of the project, the aim is to have reduced the gap between the environmental impacts of organic and integrated production and to have developed clear means of transferring the findings to growers.

Transferring knowledge on sustainability has always been a difficult task, and that is because the term ‘sustainability’ has, at best, had varying definitions and means different things to different people. For these reasons, the ARGOS program is shifting its terminology to focus on a ‘Resilience Theory.’ Whereas ‘sustainability’ suggests system vulnerability, ‘resilience’ implies a system’s ability to withstand unintentional changes and thrive under intended ones. For example, a focus of ARGOS will be monitoring biodiversity – biodiversity of wildlife, endangered species, and even soil biota. Soil health, wetland and stream water quality, and beneficial insect populations will also be monitored. Through these projects, a primary goal is to improve land stewardship, and as a result, improve relations among land owners, environmental groups, and government bodies.

Concluding Remarks

Just as the ARGOS project has its base in scientific study yet includes a goal of strengthening relations among sectors of the population, at this – the conclusion of my year abroad under the support of the Dreer Fellowship – I believe that what I have learned and how I have grown goes beyond my scientific understanding of horticulture in other parts of the world. I also gained an appreciation for different peoples and cultures.

Take, for example, the grower survey that I conducted on Hort16A vine training systems. Through this project, I witnessed innovation in the field, and I tried my own hand at pruning kiwifruit vines. Nevertheless, an important element of the project was simply talking with growers. Aside from personal interviews, at the conclusion of the project, all participating growers were invited to a presentation, and an interesting discussion followed. We discussed how controlled research would be a good next step and what the growers planned to do in the future. The hesitations of growers were divulged in honest accounts unlike anything I have observed in the United States. Perhaps this stems from their one-marketer marketing system where information and profits are shared, or from the fact that this fruit bears their name, and Kiwi growers take great pride in their crop and want to see it thrive.

Speaking of pride, that is just how the Spanish view their olives and olive oil. Not only is there pride in the varieties they breed and their standards for quality oil, there is a cultural pride for this historic fruit. The tree, the fruit, and the oil – all influenced the settlement, religious establishment, and prosperity of the country. Today, it remains in the culture as a food staple and a livelihood for many families. From the past to the present, the olive is engraved into the history of Spain.

History also explains the winegrape in Chile’s culture. Introduced by Spanish missionaries, the dry climate of Chile’s central valley proved an optimal location for the crop, and when Chilean wine began competing with European wine, it was an omen for the future. Today, Chilean wine is not only enjoyed by its own people but also by people worldwide. Chilean winemakers have learned from the most prestigious of European and Californian producers but compete with them with their own high-quality, low-priced product.

And how does the culture of these crops relate to my overall objective of studying horticultural sustainability in these countries? Sustainability is not simply a focus on managing agriculture in such ways that is harmonious with the environment. Sustainability also includes a human element. A crop is not sustainable if it does not sustain the livelihoods of the people who grow it. After all, it is these people who steward the land. By growing a crop and making a living, these people respect that, in order for future successes to follow, they must care for the land. Sustainability might mean change in their methods over time, but it should not mean hindrance from the end goals. It is impossible to restore our environment to a pre-human existence, and there isn’t a place on the Earth which hasn’t been influenced by our touch, so it is important that we use our hands to continue molding and shaping. Sustainability, because it is a nebulous term, is something we will never completely attain, but with an understanding for its environmental and human components – in viewing man as part of nature – it is a goal toward which to keep striving. That is what I have learned this year….

References

Kerr, J., E. Hewett, and A. Aitken. 2005. “HortResearch Fresh Facts – New Zealand Horticulture” (brochure). ISSN 1177-2190. ISBN 0-477-10014-7. pp 1-33.

“Welcome to ARGOS” (website). 2004. ARGOS: Agriculture Research Group on Sustainability. Viewed September 2006. http://www.argos.org.nz.