My last weekend was a busy but fun one. On Friday afternoon, a group of us from the university went to Viña Haras de Pirque at a beautiful site in the hills southeast of Santiago. An island among horse ranches and ranchette-style homes, and perched so that the smog of Santiago is visible in he distance, the vineyard emphasizes quality versus quantity and specializes in reds like Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc, and Syrah. We toured the winery and tasted various juices in the process of fermentation and wines aging in French oak. We also witnessed the hand-harvested crop being brought in from the field in small boxes - as to affirm careful handling - and then meticulously sorted by a crew, pulling the poor-quality clusters. It was an interesting outing and a nice diversion from the laboratory.
Then, on Saturday, I went on another wine excursion. My landlady had notified me of a wine train that traveled southwest of Santiago through the Colchagua Valley. The one-day tour is certainly tailored for tourists and perhaps a bit high-class for my standards; nonetheless, I enjoyed the experience. The day began early, leaving Santiago by bus through the Central Valley to San Fernando. If for nothing more, the experience was spectacular just to witness the Chilean countryside along the journey. The Central Valley of Chile is much like the Central Valley of California - just about anything grows there! Peach trees were meticulously pruned into perpendicular V's. Apples clung to mature apple trees, and high-density plantings were in their juvenile stage. Green files of cabbage were contrasted by golden stalks of corn. Leaves demonstrated a similar green to gold contrast, and many vineyards were a vibrant crimson. The flat valley was bordered by the Andes Mountains to the east - some peaks tipped in immaculate snow, and the coastal hills to the west. It almost seemed as though I was traveling down Interstate 5 or Highway 99 back home, except that the valley here is much narrower.
When we arrived in San Fernando, we boarded an antique locomotive train and headed west to Santa Cruz. Here, in the transverse Colchagua Valley, the landscape was equally impressive. We chugged casually along and were treated to wine and cheese. I tried a Carmenére - the most renowned variety in Chile, an organic Syrah, and a Merlot - Cabernet Sauvignon assemblage. When exiting the train, I was careful to grasp both hand rails firmly.
Santa Cruz was a friendly and welcoming town. It seemed as though the entire population was there at the station to greet us. Teenage girls sang and played guitar while adorable children performed the Cueca - the national, folk dance.
We boarded the buses again and headed to the Estampa Vineyard just outside of town. Newly established by the Gonsalez-Ortiz family in the year 2000, this winery produces esteemed wines that are consumed both domestically and exported. Most of their wines are assemblages - mixtures of varieties based on percentages. The bottle label and the winery building itself resemble a wave, depicting the family's love for the sea. At the winery, there was yet more tasting. We tried a varietal and a reserve wine. A varietal is one that goes straight from the fermenting tank to the bottle; whereas, a reserve wine is aged in barrels after fermenting in the tank. At Estampa, they use both American and French oak barrels for aging. The difference in quality between the varietal and reserve wines was perceptible, as the reserve had a much softer feel than the varietal, and hence is a more expensive wine.
After our winery tour, we had lunch at the gorgeous Hotel Santa Cruz. I sat at a table with the other "gringos" - a couple from England, another from Sweden, and a man from New Zealand. It was enjoyable company and food, accompanied yet by another glass of wine. Following the lunch, I meandered through the square of Santa Cruz and visited the anthropological Museum of Colchagua before it was time to again board the bus and return to Santiago.
Once I arrived in Santiago, my friend Andrea (recently moved back from Ithaca) met me, and we headed west to Viña del Mar to visit our friend Denise’s parents. It was a nice, relaxing couple of days. I enjoyed running by the ocean, and I was treated to my favorite Chilean foods as my send-off. Of course, the company was also nice, and I am very grateful to Juan Carlos and Betty for their hospitality.
On the drive back to Santiago, I snapped some pictures of the Casablanca Wine Valley. I did not visit any wineries in this valley during this trip, but I did during my previous stay in Chile a couple of years ago. The Casablanca Valley is renowned for its white wines, and in fact there is California money invested in some of these enterprises.
It was an excellent final weekend in a country with beautiful countryside.
To see pictures, go to my Shutterfly website, and click on the Wine Country and Colchagua Valley Wine Train folders. Disclaimer: many pictures were taken from moving vehicles, so that is why they are blurry.
Thursday, April 27, 2006
Thursday, April 13, 2006
The Doctor Will See You Now
It turns out I wasn’t making excuses. The “cold” that I was suffering through during the half marathon, which has kept me home from work all week, and which is still causing me suffering now, was more than just a little cough. Though I was trying to convince myself that my health was improving, a pounding headache in the night and the green mucous that I’ve coughed up every morning made me decide enough was enough. I finally went to a doctor. I was a bit nervous – not knowing where to go, how well I could communicate, or what to do about insurance – but all turned out fine. Well, fine is a relative term. I was diagnosed with a bacterial infection, which is what I figured but was stubbornly trying to overcome on my own. The doctor took about 5 minutes to look in my nose, throat, and ears, and then I was presented with a bill roughly equivalent to $80. The antibiotic was another $80 on top of that. In a country where most things are less expensive than in the United States, those sums were difficult to swallow. But, the antibiotic went down just fine, so hopefully I will start improving soon.
Tuesday, April 11, 2006
Going the Distance
I ran a half marathon last Sunday. My goal of racing in each country I visit is getting satisfied, now with t-shirts from Barcelona and Santiago as proof. Unfortunately, the experience was just ok. Here is the story…
One week before the race, I came down with a soar throat, which led to a runny nose and cough. I took a day off from work and a couple days off from running in hopes of beating it in time for the race. The symptoms seemed to wane as the week progressed, but they did not fully disappear. Stubborn as I am, however, I wasn’t going to let a mere cold keep me from running. On Saturday, the evening for the race, I took a bus to the other side of town where the runner’s exposition was being held. I don’t know what my luck is with busses, but when I boarded, there was a horrific high-pitched noise. No one else seemed alarmed by it, but it certainly wasn’t normal. Nonetheless, the driver kept driving as if nothing was wrong. But then, at some seemingly arbitrary time, he pulled over, grabbed a jug of water, and walked to the back of the bus. A minute later, the screeching stopped, and the driver returned with an empty jug. I couldn’t help but wonder why he had gone so long with such a horrible noise. And, of course, “what if???”
As the Santiago International Marathon, with 23 countries represented, over 500 participants in the marathon and over 300 in the half, the race exposition was a pretty big event. I picked up my race packet and stood in line for the pasta dinner. The blue eyes of the guy in front of me gave away that he was also a foreigner, so when he asked if I spoke English, I wasn’t surprised. He said my Teva sandals gave me away. Turns out he and his family moved to Santiago recently because of job relocation. We sat down and talked as we ate. I pulled out my liter Nalgene bottle – trying to stay well-hydrated, and he said that also gave me away as a foreigner.
The next morning, I arrived at Parque O’Higgins at 6:45am, having taken an expensive taxi because there were no other means of transportation at that hour on a Sunday. As I warmed up, I witness a vibrant sunrise over the Andes. The race started on time at 8:00am, despite the Chilean reputation for lateness. I ran through parts of the city I had seen before and others that I hadn’t. While running through the city center, a few people were on the streets – likely partiers that hadn’t slept a wink. I didn’t feel well even from the start, so by the finish, I was taxed. A couple ladies from work came to watch me finish, so that was nice support. But, as I boarded the Metro to make my way home, I started feeling dizzy, and I think I was running a fever. A crowded train meant that I sat on the floor – no, I was not doing well at this point, and I was wishing my friend Elisa was there, as she had been at my last two races in Boston and Sacramento. As I sat there, my head in my hands, a woman boarded and stood right in front of me so that when I lifted my head, her “poto” was only a few inches from my faces. I put my head back down; I felt better that way anyway. When I finally made it home, I took something to reduce my fever, and I went to sleep.
I have since improved in health – little by little. I looked up my results on the internet. I ended up taking 10th place out of about 70 women. My time was disappointing, and the time I was aiming for would have won me the race. Oh well, another race awaits me in New Zealand.
One week before the race, I came down with a soar throat, which led to a runny nose and cough. I took a day off from work and a couple days off from running in hopes of beating it in time for the race. The symptoms seemed to wane as the week progressed, but they did not fully disappear. Stubborn as I am, however, I wasn’t going to let a mere cold keep me from running. On Saturday, the evening for the race, I took a bus to the other side of town where the runner’s exposition was being held. I don’t know what my luck is with busses, but when I boarded, there was a horrific high-pitched noise. No one else seemed alarmed by it, but it certainly wasn’t normal. Nonetheless, the driver kept driving as if nothing was wrong. But then, at some seemingly arbitrary time, he pulled over, grabbed a jug of water, and walked to the back of the bus. A minute later, the screeching stopped, and the driver returned with an empty jug. I couldn’t help but wonder why he had gone so long with such a horrible noise. And, of course, “what if???”
As the Santiago International Marathon, with 23 countries represented, over 500 participants in the marathon and over 300 in the half, the race exposition was a pretty big event. I picked up my race packet and stood in line for the pasta dinner. The blue eyes of the guy in front of me gave away that he was also a foreigner, so when he asked if I spoke English, I wasn’t surprised. He said my Teva sandals gave me away. Turns out he and his family moved to Santiago recently because of job relocation. We sat down and talked as we ate. I pulled out my liter Nalgene bottle – trying to stay well-hydrated, and he said that also gave me away as a foreigner.
The next morning, I arrived at Parque O’Higgins at 6:45am, having taken an expensive taxi because there were no other means of transportation at that hour on a Sunday. As I warmed up, I witness a vibrant sunrise over the Andes. The race started on time at 8:00am, despite the Chilean reputation for lateness. I ran through parts of the city I had seen before and others that I hadn’t. While running through the city center, a few people were on the streets – likely partiers that hadn’t slept a wink. I didn’t feel well even from the start, so by the finish, I was taxed. A couple ladies from work came to watch me finish, so that was nice support. But, as I boarded the Metro to make my way home, I started feeling dizzy, and I think I was running a fever. A crowded train meant that I sat on the floor – no, I was not doing well at this point, and I was wishing my friend Elisa was there, as she had been at my last two races in Boston and Sacramento. As I sat there, my head in my hands, a woman boarded and stood right in front of me so that when I lifted my head, her “poto” was only a few inches from my faces. I put my head back down; I felt better that way anyway. When I finally made it home, I took something to reduce my fever, and I went to sleep.
I have since improved in health – little by little. I looked up my results on the internet. I ended up taking 10th place out of about 70 women. My time was disappointing, and the time I was aiming for would have won me the race. Oh well, another race awaits me in New Zealand.
Love-Hate Relationship
What is it about Ithaca that makes people love it and hate it at the same time? What is it about the “centrally-isolated,” “10 square miles surrounded by reality” that spurs even the most reserved to rant and rave? It could be the harsh winters lasting half the year, coupled with the fragrant springs, summers by the lake, and crisp autumns boasting an array of color. Or, maybe the rigorous academics at that institution upon the hill contribute, yet do not overwhelm the intellectually-stimulating – challenging but satisfying – environment. The streets are laden with pot-holes; the rhododendrons are impressive. Heating bills are steep; summer sunsets are breath-taking. Grey personalities have origin in grey skies, but town festivals unite a smiling community under the themes or art and harvest. Despite all the things that people hate about Ithaca, most will agree that it is a “gorges” place.
The Princeton Review recently ranked Cornell a “dream school” based on surveys given to high school students and their parents awaiting those coveted acceptance letters this spring. Personally, I don’t believe in such surveys because I think they lack substance. A dream school goes beyond notoriety and will differ with the student. A “dream school” could be disguised as a small college in one’s home town if that is where a student finds happiness, security, and success. I, like today’s high school students, felt uncertainty and anxiety when it was time for me to choose an undergraduate university. I didn’t apply to a single institution ranked in the top 10 list of “dream schools,” but the one I chose was a dream come true. I couldn’t have been more content with my choice of UC Davis – then and in retrospect. GO AGS!
For those students interested in pursuing a graduate level education, priorities change, and one cannot rest on the laurels of a dream survey, or in my case, comfort with the “known.” A student must go where their interests mesh with the objectives of faculty, where funding can be secured, where research is within the realm of the institution, and/or how an experience will augment a portfolio. These were my considerations when I was considering which university to attend for my Master’s degree. I chose Cornell, and it was a good fit.
For the last few months, I have been pondering to which school I would return for my Ph.D. I applied to both UC Davis and Cornell – two experienced agriculture institutions and two institutions which I have experienced. My decision ultimately came down not to a dream, but to a reality. I looked at my decision from every perspective. I weighed out the pros and cons – and a lengthy list it was! I asked myself a question: How do I wish to grow intellectually and as a human being from my experience? Finally the pondering was over, and I had my decision. I chose Cornell. It was a series of mental wanderings that led me to the decision, but I am very happy with the choice.
For my Ph.D, I will investigate Integrated Fruit Production (IFP) in apple. IFP is a system of production between conventional and organic. Like Integrated Pest Management (IPM), IFP looks to prevent and solve production problems without reliance on synthetic pesticides and fertilizers, which are used only at last resort. The finer details of my project have yet to be ironed out, but likely my work will have a soil management emphasis and perhaps an economic component looking at externalities. My interest in IFP has grown in the last few years, not only for its environmental benefits but also because of its economic implications of opening up new, scrutinizing markets. IFP is advanced in New Zealand, and my goal is to learn some of their methods in the months that come. I surmise that the contacts I make will be invaluable, and I also look forward to bridging my international experience with my future studies.
There are also many things about Ithaca that I am eager to return to. I was involved with community outreach to elementary students, and I am excited pick up where I left off. Recreationally and culturally, Ithaca offers much, and state parks are just outside the city limits. And of course, there are many people I look forward to seeing again. True, I will have to survive more winters there, so my love and hate for Ithaca and Cornell will continue for another few years.
And now, allow me a brief tangent, about which I promise to make sense. I recently went running with a couple fellow Americans, both here in Santiago for an educational exchange. One of them is a philosophy major, and he presented a question to pass the time as we trotted along: By considering oneself a citizen of the world, does one abandon his or her own heritage? This question came to him because his housemate – a Vietnamese-American – chose to study abroad in Chile and improve her Spanish-speaking skills; yet, she has never been to Vietnam and does not know Vietnamese. Her parents were opposed to her studying in Chile because, as immigrants to the United States, their wishes were for her to learn more about her own heritage. But ultimately, the decision was her’s to make.
I’m sure there will be people out there questioning my decision to return to Cornell and not to my “roots” in California. To those people, I assure you, I am not abandoning my heritage, just gaining a different perspective. My “roots” will still find support and nourishment in that Central Valley soil; they will just explore different soils in the years to come. As I further my educational pursuits in the East, I will stay informed of the issues in the West. I will continue to write letters to legislators arguing the case for California agriculture while I’m leading children on tours of the Cornell Orchards. I will return “home” on breaks and holidays to help on the family farm, even though I will reside most of the year away. And my favorite tree will continue to be the great, gnarly Valley Oak, even as I tend to apples. I’m not uprooting, just spreading to parts beyond.
The Princeton Review recently ranked Cornell a “dream school” based on surveys given to high school students and their parents awaiting those coveted acceptance letters this spring. Personally, I don’t believe in such surveys because I think they lack substance. A dream school goes beyond notoriety and will differ with the student. A “dream school” could be disguised as a small college in one’s home town if that is where a student finds happiness, security, and success. I, like today’s high school students, felt uncertainty and anxiety when it was time for me to choose an undergraduate university. I didn’t apply to a single institution ranked in the top 10 list of “dream schools,” but the one I chose was a dream come true. I couldn’t have been more content with my choice of UC Davis – then and in retrospect. GO AGS!
For those students interested in pursuing a graduate level education, priorities change, and one cannot rest on the laurels of a dream survey, or in my case, comfort with the “known.” A student must go where their interests mesh with the objectives of faculty, where funding can be secured, where research is within the realm of the institution, and/or how an experience will augment a portfolio. These were my considerations when I was considering which university to attend for my Master’s degree. I chose Cornell, and it was a good fit.
For the last few months, I have been pondering to which school I would return for my Ph.D. I applied to both UC Davis and Cornell – two experienced agriculture institutions and two institutions which I have experienced. My decision ultimately came down not to a dream, but to a reality. I looked at my decision from every perspective. I weighed out the pros and cons – and a lengthy list it was! I asked myself a question: How do I wish to grow intellectually and as a human being from my experience? Finally the pondering was over, and I had my decision. I chose Cornell. It was a series of mental wanderings that led me to the decision, but I am very happy with the choice.
For my Ph.D, I will investigate Integrated Fruit Production (IFP) in apple. IFP is a system of production between conventional and organic. Like Integrated Pest Management (IPM), IFP looks to prevent and solve production problems without reliance on synthetic pesticides and fertilizers, which are used only at last resort. The finer details of my project have yet to be ironed out, but likely my work will have a soil management emphasis and perhaps an economic component looking at externalities. My interest in IFP has grown in the last few years, not only for its environmental benefits but also because of its economic implications of opening up new, scrutinizing markets. IFP is advanced in New Zealand, and my goal is to learn some of their methods in the months that come. I surmise that the contacts I make will be invaluable, and I also look forward to bridging my international experience with my future studies.
There are also many things about Ithaca that I am eager to return to. I was involved with community outreach to elementary students, and I am excited pick up where I left off. Recreationally and culturally, Ithaca offers much, and state parks are just outside the city limits. And of course, there are many people I look forward to seeing again. True, I will have to survive more winters there, so my love and hate for Ithaca and Cornell will continue for another few years.
And now, allow me a brief tangent, about which I promise to make sense. I recently went running with a couple fellow Americans, both here in Santiago for an educational exchange. One of them is a philosophy major, and he presented a question to pass the time as we trotted along: By considering oneself a citizen of the world, does one abandon his or her own heritage? This question came to him because his housemate – a Vietnamese-American – chose to study abroad in Chile and improve her Spanish-speaking skills; yet, she has never been to Vietnam and does not know Vietnamese. Her parents were opposed to her studying in Chile because, as immigrants to the United States, their wishes were for her to learn more about her own heritage. But ultimately, the decision was her’s to make.
I’m sure there will be people out there questioning my decision to return to Cornell and not to my “roots” in California. To those people, I assure you, I am not abandoning my heritage, just gaining a different perspective. My “roots” will still find support and nourishment in that Central Valley soil; they will just explore different soils in the years to come. As I further my educational pursuits in the East, I will stay informed of the issues in the West. I will continue to write letters to legislators arguing the case for California agriculture while I’m leading children on tours of the Cornell Orchards. I will return “home” on breaks and holidays to help on the family farm, even though I will reside most of the year away. And my favorite tree will continue to be the great, gnarly Valley Oak, even as I tend to apples. I’m not uprooting, just spreading to parts beyond.
Sunday, April 02, 2006
March Dreer Fellowship Report
From Vine to Wine
The Implications for Health and Extension
A joint research venture between the University of California, Davis and the University of Adelaide, Australia recently identified the enzyme – and the encoding gene – which converts vitamin C in grapes to tartaric acid, the key acid in wine. Such a discovery is leading researchers to question whether, with genetic manipulation, a high vitamin C wine may be produced that could further enhance the healthful properties associated with this drink known the world over.
Since the 1990’s, scientists have extensively examined wine – specifically red types – for its health advantages. Flavanoids have been shown to act as anti-oxidants and may lower the risks of coronary heart disease and certain types of cancers. Other health benefits associated with wine consumption include lowering bad cholesterol levels, postponing the development of Alzheimer’s disease, and reducing the risk of developing diabetes. All of these discoveries spurred the U.S. Food and Drug Administration to remove a line from their 1995 revision of the Dietary Guidelines for Americans which denied the health advantages of wine.
The healthful properties of moderate wine consumption are attractive pieces of news, especially for health-conscious consumers with a trained palate. Nevertheless, what many of these people may not realize – as the general consumer grows distant from the food supply and food processing systems – is that these healthful properties may be linked directly to crop cultivation, pest management, and post-harvest conditions. Thus, it is not only the responsibility of the enologist for making a fine wine; much also rests in the hands of the viticulturist. Attentive to soil conditions, climate, and variety – factors collectively known as “terroire” or “of the earth” – the management strategies of the viticulturist are equally important to the procedures in the winery. Thus, consumption – both of product and news – is the result of this translation from vine to wine.
Laboratory Analyses
I have been working under the direction of Dr. Álvaro Peña, a professor in the Agriculture Industry and Enology department at the University of Chile. Álvaro’s research involves understanding how grape quality translates into wine quality. Grape samples are received from field experiments and then processed in the laboratory. A primary task in the laboratory is quantifying phenolic compounds – like anthocyanins and tannins – for comparison and observation. Upon my arrival at the university, Álvaro and I discussed what would be the nature of my work during my stay. He suggested that I gain experience in the laboratory, understanding the procedures by which these properties are measured, their importance to health, and their attractiveness as health news. The knowledge and experience would help to link me as an agriculturist to the consumer, which as a future extension educator is valuable insight. Thus, I joined the laboratory team and began to acquaintance myself with the routine. When grapes are brought to the laboratory – for each set of samples – skins and seeds are separated, macerated into slurries, and then the slurries are filtered for clarity (Figure 1). These samples, now transformed to liquid, are used for the analyses of total phenols, total tannins, total anthocyanins, and color.
The compounds responsible for the healthful properties of wine are the phenols. Present in the skins, stems, and seeds of grapes, phenols contribute color, astringency, bitterness, and aromatic properties to wine. Crop processing and fermenting influence the final wine phenolic content, with pH, temperature, degree of skin and seed maceration, and length of skin contact time being important.
To ascertain the total phenolic content in the samples, a spectrophotometer is used to measure the absorption of a given light frequency – 280 nanometers – by the liquids (Figure 2). At this frequency, all phenolics of any type of wine and regardless of pH, can be quantified. The optical density measurement obtained from the spectrophotometer is inserted into a formula, and the milligrams of phenolics per gram of seeds or skins is calculated.
Tannins and anthocyanins are two types of phenols. Tannins provide physical stability to a wine and are recognized as the agents causing astringency or bitterness. This is because as wine ages, tannins bind with proteins and precipitate, resulting in a bitterly-flavored wine. To analyze tannin content, concentrated acid is added to paired, diluted samples. One of the pairs is set-aside, while the other is heated (Figure 3). The action of the acid and heat separates the tannins from anthocyanins and other compounds. Again, the spectrophotometer is used to measure the absorption of both the heated and non-heated solutions, using a light frequency of 550 nanometers. The difference in absorption between the two is then used in a formula to obtain the milligrams of tannins per gram of seeds or skins.
Anthocyanins are found in various red, purple, and blue fruits – including red apples, cherries, blueberries, prunes, and red grapes – and influence wine color. To measure anthocyanins, paired samples are prepared, with one sample having sodium bisulfite. The sodium bisulfite changes the color of the sample to clear (Figure 4). Using a frequency of 520 nanometers, the absorption of both samples is measured. The difference in absorption between the colored and clear samples is then used in a formula, and total anthocyanin content, in terms of milligrams per gram of skins, is calculated.
The final analysis conducted in the laboratory is for color. Color implicates both health characteristics, given its relation to anthocyanins, and wine quality. Again, the spectrophotometer is used. Yellow is absorbed at 420 nanometers, and both the skin and seed samples are analyzed for yellow color. The skin samples are also measured for red (520 nanometers) and blue color (620 nanometers).
The series of analyses for a set of samples takes about a week and a half to complete. Once one set of samples is analyzed, it is usually time to begin the next set. The final set of samples is that obtained from the harvest. Periodic analyses are important because phenol levels generally decrease with crop maturity due to enzyme degradation. Finding the balance between desired sugar level and phenolic content will result is a quality wine, but it is not an easy balance to achieve. As field conditions change from year to year, a new balance must be struck each year. These field conditions, previously described as “terroire,” are the subject of the field research from which our samples were taken.
Field Experiment
A trip to northern Chile provided the opportunity to see production systems and understand the cycle of our work from field to laboratory. I ventured five hours northwest of Santiago with Álvaro and his cooperator from the Department of Plant Physiology, Dr. Claudio Pastenes, to the one-road town of Punitaqui. Punitaqui is located in an inland valley surrounded by Atacama hillsides. The valley is literally an oasis amidst the parched desert, as irrigation has allowed agriculture to thrive (Figure 5). Water is the lifeblood of the annual vegetable crops and wine grapes, which, given the arid climate, generally mature weeks ahead of those from the central valley near Santiago.
The University of Chile conducts field research at the private, biodynamic vineyard of the Soler family. Dating back to 1924, and predating organic farming by 20 years, biodynamic farming is surging in popularity worldwide. It was developed by Austrian scientist/philosopher Rudolph Steiner and, like organic farming, emphasizes environmentally-sustainable practices like composting, soil fertility, crop rotation, and plant diversity. Nonetheless, biodynamic farming goes further than its organic counterpart by integrating crops and livestock and by using life forces – like seasonal events and cosmic rhythms – in coordinating planting and composting. In other words, biodynamic farming could be described as a “whole farm approach” (Rieger, 2005) to farm management.
These biodynamic principles were evident at the Soler vineyard. A man-made lake augmented flora and fauna diversity. A chicken coop was positioned within the vineyard for the birds’ contribution to pest management and soil organic matter. Compost is made on-site and applied to the land to enhance soil nutrition, and of course, no chemical pesticides are used on their Cabernet Sauvignon vines, which are irrigated by drip (Figure 6).
All else being equal, what the Soler family cannot control are their soil conditions. The primary focus of the “terroire” experiment is the tremendous variability of the vineyard soil profile. The site has been divided into six sectors, and differences in soil texture are obvious. All points of the soil texture triangle, and points in between, are illustrated in the soil trenches. Rocky soils, sandy soils, and clayey soils are all present in this one vineyard site (Figures 7 and 8). These differences in soil are translating into differences in vine vigor. Stronger, greener vines are found in the rich soil, while weaker vines – verging on chlorotic – are found in the porous ones (Figure 9).
This relation between soil quality and vine vigor may have interesting inference for berry composition. Vine vigor and the resulting microclimate have been shown to effect berry phenolic levels. According to an Australian study by Haselgrove et al. (2000), grapes in exposed light generally had higher sugars, an improved acid balance, and higher phenolics than those in shaded regions of the canopy. Light was recognized as the factor influencing anthocyanin production in the early stages of berry ripening. Temperature, however, was the more important factor in later stages, with temperatures higher than 26°C inhibiting anthocyanin production. The information presented from this study could have implications for the “terroire” experiment at the Soler family vineyard. Do the weaker vines have a warmer canopy microclimate? Is this warmer microclimate inhibiting anthocyanin production? If so, a diversified management strategy may be in order for the future – based on field sector – in an effort to maintain a consistent crop and high-quality wine.
Conclusion
When striving to create a quality wine, many factors must be considered. From the field factors collectively known as “terroire,” to those studied in the laboratory which impart healthful properties, wine-making has its intricacies, and there is more to think about than merely how it feels on the palate. From the viticulturist to the enologist to the consumer, many parties are interested in the product and will read news about it, especially if it has health inferences. In a world where the general public has little knowledge about where their food comes from, we as agriculturists can take advantage of this interest in health news to extend our own areas of specialty from seed to grain, stock to fruit, and vine to wine.
References
Bailey, Pat. 2006. Wine with a double shot of vitamin C? UC Davis News and Information. Viewed March 23, 2006. http://www.news.ucdavis.edu/search/newsdetail.lasso?id=7676.
Haselgrove, L., D. Botting, R. van Heeswijck, P Hoj, P. Dry, C. Ford, and P. Iland. 2000. Canopy microclimate and berry composition: The effect of bunch exposure on the phenolic composition of Vitis vinifera L cv. Shiraz grape berries. Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research. 6(2): 141-149.
LaMar, Jim. 2006. Wine and health. Professional Friends of Wine. Viewed March 27, 2006. http://www.winepros.org/wine101/wine-health.htm.
Rieger, Ted. 2005. New roots in Lake County: Ceágo Vinegarden. Vineyard and Winery Management. 31(4): 52-63.
Zoecklein, B.W., K.C. Fugelsang, B.H. Gump, and F.S. Nury. 1990. Production Wine Analysis. Van Nostrand Reinhold: New York.
The Implications for Health and Extension
A joint research venture between the University of California, Davis and the University of Adelaide, Australia recently identified the enzyme – and the encoding gene – which converts vitamin C in grapes to tartaric acid, the key acid in wine. Such a discovery is leading researchers to question whether, with genetic manipulation, a high vitamin C wine may be produced that could further enhance the healthful properties associated with this drink known the world over.
Since the 1990’s, scientists have extensively examined wine – specifically red types – for its health advantages. Flavanoids have been shown to act as anti-oxidants and may lower the risks of coronary heart disease and certain types of cancers. Other health benefits associated with wine consumption include lowering bad cholesterol levels, postponing the development of Alzheimer’s disease, and reducing the risk of developing diabetes. All of these discoveries spurred the U.S. Food and Drug Administration to remove a line from their 1995 revision of the Dietary Guidelines for Americans which denied the health advantages of wine.
The healthful properties of moderate wine consumption are attractive pieces of news, especially for health-conscious consumers with a trained palate. Nevertheless, what many of these people may not realize – as the general consumer grows distant from the food supply and food processing systems – is that these healthful properties may be linked directly to crop cultivation, pest management, and post-harvest conditions. Thus, it is not only the responsibility of the enologist for making a fine wine; much also rests in the hands of the viticulturist. Attentive to soil conditions, climate, and variety – factors collectively known as “terroire” or “of the earth” – the management strategies of the viticulturist are equally important to the procedures in the winery. Thus, consumption – both of product and news – is the result of this translation from vine to wine.
Laboratory Analyses
I have been working under the direction of Dr. Álvaro Peña, a professor in the Agriculture Industry and Enology department at the University of Chile. Álvaro’s research involves understanding how grape quality translates into wine quality. Grape samples are received from field experiments and then processed in the laboratory. A primary task in the laboratory is quantifying phenolic compounds – like anthocyanins and tannins – for comparison and observation. Upon my arrival at the university, Álvaro and I discussed what would be the nature of my work during my stay. He suggested that I gain experience in the laboratory, understanding the procedures by which these properties are measured, their importance to health, and their attractiveness as health news. The knowledge and experience would help to link me as an agriculturist to the consumer, which as a future extension educator is valuable insight. Thus, I joined the laboratory team and began to acquaintance myself with the routine. When grapes are brought to the laboratory – for each set of samples – skins and seeds are separated, macerated into slurries, and then the slurries are filtered for clarity (Figure 1). These samples, now transformed to liquid, are used for the analyses of total phenols, total tannins, total anthocyanins, and color.
The compounds responsible for the healthful properties of wine are the phenols. Present in the skins, stems, and seeds of grapes, phenols contribute color, astringency, bitterness, and aromatic properties to wine. Crop processing and fermenting influence the final wine phenolic content, with pH, temperature, degree of skin and seed maceration, and length of skin contact time being important.
To ascertain the total phenolic content in the samples, a spectrophotometer is used to measure the absorption of a given light frequency – 280 nanometers – by the liquids (Figure 2). At this frequency, all phenolics of any type of wine and regardless of pH, can be quantified. The optical density measurement obtained from the spectrophotometer is inserted into a formula, and the milligrams of phenolics per gram of seeds or skins is calculated.
Tannins and anthocyanins are two types of phenols. Tannins provide physical stability to a wine and are recognized as the agents causing astringency or bitterness. This is because as wine ages, tannins bind with proteins and precipitate, resulting in a bitterly-flavored wine. To analyze tannin content, concentrated acid is added to paired, diluted samples. One of the pairs is set-aside, while the other is heated (Figure 3). The action of the acid and heat separates the tannins from anthocyanins and other compounds. Again, the spectrophotometer is used to measure the absorption of both the heated and non-heated solutions, using a light frequency of 550 nanometers. The difference in absorption between the two is then used in a formula to obtain the milligrams of tannins per gram of seeds or skins.
Anthocyanins are found in various red, purple, and blue fruits – including red apples, cherries, blueberries, prunes, and red grapes – and influence wine color. To measure anthocyanins, paired samples are prepared, with one sample having sodium bisulfite. The sodium bisulfite changes the color of the sample to clear (Figure 4). Using a frequency of 520 nanometers, the absorption of both samples is measured. The difference in absorption between the colored and clear samples is then used in a formula, and total anthocyanin content, in terms of milligrams per gram of skins, is calculated.
The final analysis conducted in the laboratory is for color. Color implicates both health characteristics, given its relation to anthocyanins, and wine quality. Again, the spectrophotometer is used. Yellow is absorbed at 420 nanometers, and both the skin and seed samples are analyzed for yellow color. The skin samples are also measured for red (520 nanometers) and blue color (620 nanometers).
The series of analyses for a set of samples takes about a week and a half to complete. Once one set of samples is analyzed, it is usually time to begin the next set. The final set of samples is that obtained from the harvest. Periodic analyses are important because phenol levels generally decrease with crop maturity due to enzyme degradation. Finding the balance between desired sugar level and phenolic content will result is a quality wine, but it is not an easy balance to achieve. As field conditions change from year to year, a new balance must be struck each year. These field conditions, previously described as “terroire,” are the subject of the field research from which our samples were taken.
Field Experiment
A trip to northern Chile provided the opportunity to see production systems and understand the cycle of our work from field to laboratory. I ventured five hours northwest of Santiago with Álvaro and his cooperator from the Department of Plant Physiology, Dr. Claudio Pastenes, to the one-road town of Punitaqui. Punitaqui is located in an inland valley surrounded by Atacama hillsides. The valley is literally an oasis amidst the parched desert, as irrigation has allowed agriculture to thrive (Figure 5). Water is the lifeblood of the annual vegetable crops and wine grapes, which, given the arid climate, generally mature weeks ahead of those from the central valley near Santiago.
The University of Chile conducts field research at the private, biodynamic vineyard of the Soler family. Dating back to 1924, and predating organic farming by 20 years, biodynamic farming is surging in popularity worldwide. It was developed by Austrian scientist/philosopher Rudolph Steiner and, like organic farming, emphasizes environmentally-sustainable practices like composting, soil fertility, crop rotation, and plant diversity. Nonetheless, biodynamic farming goes further than its organic counterpart by integrating crops and livestock and by using life forces – like seasonal events and cosmic rhythms – in coordinating planting and composting. In other words, biodynamic farming could be described as a “whole farm approach” (Rieger, 2005) to farm management.
These biodynamic principles were evident at the Soler vineyard. A man-made lake augmented flora and fauna diversity. A chicken coop was positioned within the vineyard for the birds’ contribution to pest management and soil organic matter. Compost is made on-site and applied to the land to enhance soil nutrition, and of course, no chemical pesticides are used on their Cabernet Sauvignon vines, which are irrigated by drip (Figure 6).
All else being equal, what the Soler family cannot control are their soil conditions. The primary focus of the “terroire” experiment is the tremendous variability of the vineyard soil profile. The site has been divided into six sectors, and differences in soil texture are obvious. All points of the soil texture triangle, and points in between, are illustrated in the soil trenches. Rocky soils, sandy soils, and clayey soils are all present in this one vineyard site (Figures 7 and 8). These differences in soil are translating into differences in vine vigor. Stronger, greener vines are found in the rich soil, while weaker vines – verging on chlorotic – are found in the porous ones (Figure 9).
This relation between soil quality and vine vigor may have interesting inference for berry composition. Vine vigor and the resulting microclimate have been shown to effect berry phenolic levels. According to an Australian study by Haselgrove et al. (2000), grapes in exposed light generally had higher sugars, an improved acid balance, and higher phenolics than those in shaded regions of the canopy. Light was recognized as the factor influencing anthocyanin production in the early stages of berry ripening. Temperature, however, was the more important factor in later stages, with temperatures higher than 26°C inhibiting anthocyanin production. The information presented from this study could have implications for the “terroire” experiment at the Soler family vineyard. Do the weaker vines have a warmer canopy microclimate? Is this warmer microclimate inhibiting anthocyanin production? If so, a diversified management strategy may be in order for the future – based on field sector – in an effort to maintain a consistent crop and high-quality wine.
Conclusion
When striving to create a quality wine, many factors must be considered. From the field factors collectively known as “terroire,” to those studied in the laboratory which impart healthful properties, wine-making has its intricacies, and there is more to think about than merely how it feels on the palate. From the viticulturist to the enologist to the consumer, many parties are interested in the product and will read news about it, especially if it has health inferences. In a world where the general public has little knowledge about where their food comes from, we as agriculturists can take advantage of this interest in health news to extend our own areas of specialty from seed to grain, stock to fruit, and vine to wine.
References
Bailey, Pat. 2006. Wine with a double shot of vitamin C? UC Davis News and Information. Viewed March 23, 2006. http://www.news.ucdavis.edu/search/newsdetail.lasso?id=7676.
Haselgrove, L., D. Botting, R. van Heeswijck, P Hoj, P. Dry, C. Ford, and P. Iland. 2000. Canopy microclimate and berry composition: The effect of bunch exposure on the phenolic composition of Vitis vinifera L cv. Shiraz grape berries. Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research. 6(2): 141-149.
LaMar, Jim. 2006. Wine and health. Professional Friends of Wine. Viewed March 27, 2006. http://www.winepros.org/wine101/wine-health.htm.
Rieger, Ted. 2005. New roots in Lake County: Ceágo Vinegarden. Vineyard and Winery Management. 31(4): 52-63.
Zoecklein, B.W., K.C. Fugelsang, B.H. Gump, and F.S. Nury. 1990. Production Wine Analysis. Van Nostrand Reinhold: New York.
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